While the needs of the company for a quality effort are met, the ultimate needs of the customer, are still often overlooked. The customer has become more sophisticated and demanding. The quality assurance department needs to develop its abilities to study process capabilities and make sure that key quality characteristics are under control. Purchasing, production, engineering, manufacturing, marketing, vendors, suppliers, and related staffs must work together to meet the quality requirements.
These activities may involve data collection, data analysis, product research, team building, feedback analysis from customers, market research, training, cross-functional planning, manufacturing engineering, purchasing, packaging, etc. The process will define the purpose and goals for the company, and then add the follow through necessary to reach those goals.
Quality planning, at the highest level of the organization, will provide more recognition and commitment to the quality effort. Quality planning, at the strategic level, can be described as strategic quality planning.
For total quality to succeed, a structured process should be used. The quality council has the responsibility for the growth, control, and effectiveness of total quality TQ , as well as the incorporation of TQ into the strategic business plan.
This is defined in ISO Element 5. In general, quality policies should be concise and meaningful. A quality policy usually has statements that indicate a company will meet or exceed customer expectations, delight the customer, etc. The goals, determined to be of a strategic nature, become a part of the strategic business plan.
The quality goals are specific, quantified, and scheduled. Quality goals may be linked to product performance, service performance, customer satisfaction, quality improvement, or cost of quality. Having quality goals placed in the strategic business plan, indicates to all employees that quality goals have special importance. The quality council has the initial task of deploying spreading out the main strategic quality goals into bit-size pieces for the lower levels of the organization.
As each level of the organization function or team receives its goals, it is expected that they should review their mission, capabilities, and resources. If the function or team requires additional resources or training, those things must be resolved to accomplish the required objective. The TQ structure must have a basic process for goal setting, goal deployment, training of personnel, goal tracking, goal evaluation and recognition of effort. Through tie-in to the strategic business plan, this may indicate that resources, in the form of additional staff help, equipment, or external staff, are required for a total quality effort to succeed.
However, the quality manager has a vital role to play in this structure. The resources, to aid in the total quality effort, may be coordinated directly by the quality manager. The measurement of performance must then be addressed. Each level of the organization will regularly review their progress against the goals. This means that the senior executives with quality goals are measured, just as they are measured against earnings per share.
At different levels of the organization, reviews are held to measure quality progress. These quality reviews should be held in conjunction with the reviews of other strategic goals. Top management, operating departments, and related staffs must know where the system stands in relation to a performance measure.
The scope of an audit will be determined by the guidelines set forth by the quality council. Quality audits can be conducted through internal teams, outside auditors, upper managers, or by the president. Each stakeholder has unique relationships with the business. The change can affect various people inside and outside of the system. Major resistance to the change can develop. As part of the define process, attempts to remove or reduce the resistance must be made. Stakeholders can be identified as: C C C C C C C Managers of the process People in the process Upstream people in the process Downstream people in the process Customers Suppliers Financial areas A communication plan should involve the stakeholders and identify, on a scale, the level of commitment or resistance that the stakeholder is perceived to have.
The standard for comparison may be a competitor within the industry but, quite often, is found in unrelated business segments. This form of benchmarking seeks to identify the most effective operating practices from many companies that perform similar work functions.
Performance Benchmarking Performance benchmarking enables managers to assess their competitive positions through product and service comparisons. This form of benchmarking usually focuses on elements of price, technical quality, ancillary product or service features, speed, reliability, and other performance characteristics.
Areas such as new product introduction, construction, or new services are activities common to many types of organizations. The projects will share the same constraint factors of time, costs, resources, and performance. Project management benchmarking is useful in selecting new techniques for planning, scheduling, and controlling the project.
Strategic Benchmarking In general terms, strategic benchmarking examines how companies compete. Strategic benchmarking is seldom industry-focused. It moves across industries seeking to identify the winning strategies that have enabled highperforming companies to be successful in their marketplaces. Typical Benchmark Time Breakthrough Benchmark Time It should be noted that organizations often choose benchmarking partners who are not best-in-class, because they have identified the wrong partner or simply picked someone who is handy.
Resources consumed by the project include time, money, people, and equipment. The elements of project management are: C Planning C Scheduling C Controlling - deciding what to do - deciding when to do it - ensuring the desired results Project management includes project planning and implementation to achieve: C C C C Specified goals and objectives At the desired performance or technology level Within the time and cost constraints While utilizing the allocated resources Well executed project plans meet all of the above criteria.
Crashing programs to return a project to the specified time frame is done at the expense of higher costs and resource usage. Performance is measured on results, not effort. The unit of measurement is time in minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, or years, and is readily understood by all participants on a project.
The overall project has definite starting and ending dates, both planned and attained. Tasks within the project are assigned starting and ending times.
As a performance tool, the project time line is updated with actual completion dates and adjustments made to compensate for early or late performance.
From a quality viewpoint, both early and late projects have the opportunity for poor quality compared to the project completed on schedule. As each project activity is broken into smaller tasks, the resources are assigned to complete those tasks. Resource conflicts are resolved according to the circumstances in which they occur.
Conflicts between two different projects for resources can be settled on the basis of priority of the project. Resource conflicts within tasks of a project are decided by the impact on the project completion date.
If one task has available slack time, the timing of the need for the resource can often be adjusted. Resource leveling is used to smooth peaks and valleys in the demand for resources and spread the use more evenly over time. While monitoring both time and resource use during the project is important, the more significant performance measures of the project are the project completion date and the total costs.
C Arrows imply logical precedence only. The length and compass direction of the arrows have no meaning. C Any two events may be directly connected by only one activity. C Event numbers must be unique. C The network must start at a single event, and end at a single event. C Activities must be sequenced to determine the critical path. C Time estimates must be made for each activity in the network, and stated as three values: optimistic, most likely, and pessimistic elapsed times.
C The critical path and slack times for the project are calculated. The critical path is the sequence of tasks which require the greatest expected time. The slack time, S, for an event is the latest date an event can occur without extending the project TL minus the earliest date an event can occur TE. C The probability of achieving the project deadlines can be determined, and by development of alternative plans, the likelihood of meeting the completion date is improved. C Changes in the project can be evaluated to determine their effects.
C A large amount of project data can be organized and presented in a diagram for use in decision making. C PERT can be used on unique, non-repetitive projects. C More data is required as network inputs. Each starting or ending point for activities on a PERT chart is an event, and is denoted as a circle with an event number inside.
Events are connected by arrows with a number indicating the time duration required to go between events. An event at the start of an arrow must be completed before the event at the end of the arrow may begin. Circles represent the start and end of each task.
The numbers within the circles identify the events. The arrows represent tasks and the numbers along the arrows are the task durations in weeks. Unique features of CPM include: C The emphasis is on activities C The time and cost factors for each activity are determined C Only activities on the critical path are considered C Activities with the lowest crash cost are selected first C As an activity is crashed, it is possible for a new critical path to develop To complete the project in a shorter period, the activity with the lowest incremental cost per time saved is crashed first.
The critical path is recalculated. Each activity is shown as a horizontal bar with ends positioned at the starting and ending dates for the activity. Sampling also involves risks that the sample will not adequately reflect the conditions in the lot. The OC curve is a graph of the percent defective in a batch versus the probability that the sampling plan will accept that batch.
Pa Lot Percent Defective However, no perfect sampling plan exists. Acceptance quality limit AQL : This is defined as the worst tolerable quality level that is still considered satisfactory as a process average.
The probability of accepting a lot produced at the AQL should be high. Rejectable quality level RQL : This defines unsatisfactory quality. The probability of accepting a RQL lot should be low. In some tables, this is known as the consumer's risk and has been standardized at 0. It is normally defined as the quality level having probability of acceptance of 0. The IQL is rarely used. Pa is the probability that the number of defectives in the sample is equal to or less than the sampling plan acceptance number.
There are three attribute distributions that can be used to find the probability of acceptance: the hypergeometic, binomial, and the Poisson distribution. This table gives the probability of r or fewer defectives in a sample of n from a lot having a fraction defective of p.
The following example should help with the explanation. Acceptance number The maximum number of defective units or defects in a Ac or C sample that will permit acceptance of the inspection lot.
The expected quality of outgoing Average product following the use of an outgoing quality AOQ acceptance sampling plan for a given value of incoming product. Defect A departure of a quality characteristic from its intended level or state that occurs with a severity sufficient to cause an associated product or service not to satisfy its intended use.
Defective A unit of product that contains one or more defects at least one of which causes the unit to fail its specifications. Discrepancy A failure to meet the specified requirement, supported by evidence.
Inspection The process of measuring, examining, testing, or otherwise comparing a unit with requirements. Inspection by Inspection, whereby either the unit of attributes product is classified simply as conforming or non-conforming, or the number of nonconformities. Inspection level A feature of a sampling scheme relating the size of the sample to that of the lot. Inspection, normal Inspection, used when there is no evidence that the quality of the product being submitted is better or poorer than the specified quality level.
This is the usual inspection starting point. Inspection record Recorded data concerning inspection results. Inspection, reduced A feature of a sampling scheme permitting smaller sample sizes than are used in normal inspection. Inspection, tightened A feature of a sampling scheme using stricter acceptance criteria than those used in normal inspection. A curve showing, for a given sampling Operating characteristic plan, the probability of accepting a lot as a function of the lot quality.
Pa Process average The average percent of defectives or average number of defects per hundred units of submitted product. Producer's risk " The probability of rejecting a good lot. Random sampling The selection of units such a manner that all combinations of units under consideration have an equal chance of being selected. Rejection number Re The minimum number of defects or defective units in the sample that will reject the lot or batch.
Sample size n The number of units in a sample. Sampling errors In sampling one never knows whether the lot is good or bad. Sampling, multiple Sampling inspection in which, after each sample is inspected, the decision is made to accept a lot; not to accept it, or to take another sample to reach the decision. Sampling plan A statement of the sample size or sizes to be used and the associated acceptance and rejection criteria. Sampling, sequential Sampling inspection in which, after each unit is inspected, the decision is made to accept the lot, not to accept it, or to inspect another unit.
Sampling, single Sampling inspection in which, after each unit is inspected, the decision is made to accept the lot or reject it. Attributes plans Defectives: A sample is taken from a lot with each unit classified as acceptable or defective. The number of defectives is then compared to the acceptance number in order to make an accept or reject decision for the lot. Defects: A sample is taken from a lot and the defects are counted. This value is compared to the acceptance number, in order to make an accept or reject decision for the lot.
Variables plans A sample is taken and one or more quality characteristic measurements are made on each unit. These measurements are then summarized into simple statistics such as the sample average or standard deviation which are compared with a critical value defined in the plan. A decision is then made to accept or reject the lot. The intent is to illustrate how the major plans are used.
Chain sampling Single and two-stage Useful for destructive or costly testing. Bayesian discovery sampling Generally single Used when the probability of Relatively small sample sizes are defective lots can be required. Minimizes the rejection of good lots. Easy to explain and administer. Minimizes sample sizes without large rejection risk.
Unit sampling, Used to screen lots; rejected Examines one item at a time. The ATI is minimal. Single Useful for high quality levels and when inspection is costly. Minimizes inspection with protection against quality deterioration. Plans limit the average quality in the long run.
Provides tables for process evaluation. Provides process and lot evaluation. Operating characteristic OC curves applicable to single, double, or multiple plans are provided. Single Sampling Tables Three numbers are necessary to describe a single sampling plan using these standards. C In the code letter table, the sample code is J. Assume general inspection level II and single sampling.
Answers: 5. Unless otherwise specified, inspection level II should be used. Inspection level I may be specified when less discrimination is required. Inspection level III may be specified for greater discrimination. Reduced inspection: Under reduced inspection, the plans allow a smaller sample to be taken than under normal inspection. Reduced inspection may be implemented when it is evident that quality is running unusually well. Tightened inspection: Under tightened inspection, the inspection plan requires more stringent acceptance criteria.
Such a plan is used when it becomes evident that quality is deteriorating. They are used where relatively small sample sizes are necessary and large sampling risks can or must be tolerated. In the designation of inspection levels S-1 to S-4, care must be exercised to avoid AQLs inconsistent with these inspection levels. Tightened: When 2 out of 5 consecutive lots or batches have been rejected on original inspection.
Normal: When 5 consecutive lots or batches have been considered acceptable on original inspection. Reduced: All of the following must be satisfied: C The preceding 10 lots or batches have been acceptable. C The total number of defectives from the 10 lots or batches is equal to or less than an applicable number.
C Production is at a steady rate. C Reduced inspection is considered desirable by the responsible authority. Normal: When any of the following occur: C A lot or batch is rejected. C Under reduced inspection, the sampling procedure may terminate without acceptance or rejection. The lot is considered acceptable, but then normal inspection is used. C Production becomes irregular or delayed. C Other conditions warrant it.
In single sampling plans, a random sample is drawn from the lot. If the number of defectives is less than or equal to the acceptance number, the lot is accepted. In double sampling plans, a smaller initial sample is usually drawn. A decision to accept or reject is reached on the basis of a single sample if the number of defectives is either quite large or quite small. A second sample is then taken if the first one cannot be accepted or rejected.
Double and multiple sampling plans usually mean less inspection but are complicated to administer. The tables provide protection against poor quality based on the average long-run quality. The LTPD values range from 0. The AOQL values range from 0. The selection of a Dodge-Romig plan requires two items of information: the size of lot to be sampled and the expected process average based on past inspection records and any additional information which may be used to predict the expected quality level.
The corresponding lot tolerances are given. The average of the perfect quality of the inspected lots with the poor quality of some accepted lots determines the average outgoing quality limit. Sampling is uneconomical if the average quality submitted is not considerably better than the specified AOQL because of administration expenses.
This is perhaps the most important feature of the Dodge-Romig tables. The total number of items inspected is made up of two components: 1 The sample which is inspected for each lot, and 2 The remaining items which must be inspected if the lot fails. Variables sampling plans require unit measurements. The sample data is recorded and processed to yield a statistic such as a sample average, range, or standard deviation.
These calculated values are then compared to a critical or table value to arrive at a decision on the lot in question. The sample size and critical value are based on the desired sampling risk. Section C: Consists of sampling plans that are used when the variability is unknown, and the range method is used. Section D: Consists of sampling plans that are used when the variability is known.
For double specification limits, both the QU and QL are calculated. The technique used is similar to that of determining a Z value in Section X of this Primer. The student should be familiar with the general concepts.
Note that the whole process is very similar to capability determinations and Z table usage presented in Primer Section X. If there is only one subgroup, R is used. There are three different severities for inspection: normal, tightened, and reduced. Each of these severities has rules. The severity must be known for the sampling plan to be found.
The student is referred to the standard itself for all procedures and calculations. An upper value, QU, or lower value, QL, is calculated for a single specification limit. This sample is used to gather acceptance data about each lot. The samples should be a random unbiased representation of the lot. Since the sample is used to determine the acceptance of a lot, care is taken to ensure that the sample is not contaminated.
In some products, such as foods, any unsanitary factor introduced by the sampling process could influence the outcome. Some common influencing factors are: C Personnel C Instruments C Containers C Storage areas C Environment conditions C Laboratory conditions Acceptability results may also become questionable by inappropriate labeling which would void the link between the sample and the lot.
Cross contamination between samples must be avoided. The major job functions that impact sample integrity typically include the following: C C C C C C C The ability to interpret blueprints, specifications The ability to operate test equipment proficiently The appropriate physical capacity The ability to properly record and analyze data Knowledge of materials and processes Adherence to company policies and procedures The ability to prepare reports and communicate Some pre-testing may prove beneficial in identifying the presence or absence of necessary skills.
Many of the above items can be taught. The attainment of inspection accuracy depends in large measure on advanced planning, the identification of key characteristics, the proper tools, specifications, facilities, etc. However, other sources of human error exist. Rigidly enforced procedures, automated inspection, or error-proofing may help.
Technique errors: These errors are consistently made by some individuals and may indicate lack of training, lack of skill, or lack of capacity. The primary reason that nonconforming material should be identified and segregated is: a. So that the cause of nonconformity can be determined b. So it cannot be used in production without proper authorization c. To obtain samples of poor workmanship for use in the company's training program d. So that responsibility can be determined and disciplinary action taken 5.
Which of the following is the principal purpose of the MRB? Identifying potential suppliers b. Disposing of nonconforming material c. Appraising suppliers d. Detecting nonconforming material Answers: 5. Two quantities which uniquely determine a single sampling attributes plan are: a. Sample size and rejection number c. AQL and producer's risk d. LTPD and consumer's risk 5. Using visual inspection standards and traditional methods, some defects are located in a large batch of product.
What is the best estimate of the total number of defects in the product before inspection? What is the importance of the reaction plan in a control plan? It describes what will happen if a key variable goes out of control b.
It indicates that a new team must be formed to react to a problem c. It lists how often the process should be monitored d. It defines the special characteristics to be monitored Answers: 5. One of these is: a. Inspection level I is specified b. The process average is less than the AOQL d.
The maximum percent defective is less than the AQL 5. The most important activity of a material review board MRB would normally be: a. Making sure that corrective action is taken to prevent recurrence of the problem b. To provide a segregated area for holding discrepant material pending disposition c. To prepare discrepant material reports for management review d. To accept discrepant material when "commercial" decisions dictate 5.
In a visual inspection situation, one of the best ways to minimize deterioration of the quality level is to: a. Retrain the inspector frequently b. Have a program of frequent eye exams c. Add variety to the task d. Have a standard to compare against as an element of the operation Answers: 5. The purpose of a written inspection procedure is to: a. Provide answers to inspection questions b. Let the operator know what the inspector is doing c.
Fool-proof the inspection function d. Standardize methods and procedures of inspectors 5. A sampling plan that may use up to 4 samples to make a decision to accept or reject is: a. Single sampling b. Double sampling c. Multiple sampling d.
Quadruple sampling 5. Which of the following elements would NOT be expected on a control plan form? Specifications b. Potential causes of failure c. Key input variables d. Key output variables Answers: 5. Destructive and nondestructive tests are described later in this Section. Air gages Accuracy depends upon the Used to measure the diameter of gage design. Measurements a bore or hole. However, other of less than 0.
Automatic sorting gages Accurate within 0. Used to sort parts by dimension. Combination square Accurate within one degree. Used to make angular checks. Coordinate measuring machines Accuracy depends upon the part. Axis accuracies are within 35 millionths and T. Can be used to measure a variety of characteristics, such as contour, taper, radii, roundness, squareness, etc. Dial bore gages Accurate w ithin 0.
Used to measure bore diameters, tapers, or out-ofroundness. Dial indicator Accuracy depends upon the type of indicator. Some measure within 0. Measures a variety of features such as: flatness, diameter, concentricity, taper, height, etc.
Electronic comparator Accurate from 0. Normally used to determine if diameters are within specification. Flush pin gages Accuracy of about 0. Used for high volume single purpose applications. Gage blocks Accuracy of the gage block Gage blocks are best adapted depends upon the grade. Height verniers Mechanical models measure Used to check dimensional to 0. Some digital tolerances on a surface plate. Internal and external thread gages No exact reading. Micrometer inside Mechanical accuracy is Used for checking large hole about 0.
Some digital diameters. Micrometer outside Mechanical accuracy is Normally used to check diameter about 0. Some digital or thickness. Special models models are accurate to can check thread diameters. Optical comparator The accuracy can be within Measures difficult contours and 0. Optical flat Depending on operator skill, Used only for very precise tool Best used for accurate to a few millionths room work. Plug gages Accuracy very good for checking the largest or smallest hole diameter.
Will Used for measuring inside and given outside pitch thread diameters. Checking the diameter of drilled or reamed holes. Will not check for out of roundness. With a feeler gage 0. Used to check flatness, waviness or squareness of a face to a reference plane.
Used to check small radii, and contours. Ring gages Will only discriminate against diameters larger or smaller than the print specification. Best application is to approximate a mating part in assembly. Steel ruler or scale No better than 0. Surface plates Flatness expected to be no Used to measure the overall better than 0.
Tapered parallels U s i n g a n a c c u r a t e Used to measure bore sizes in micrometer, the accuracy is low volume applications. Tool maker's flat Accuracy is no better than Used with a surface plate and 0.
Vernier calipers About 0. Some digital Used to check diameters and models are accurate to thickness. Vernier depth gage About 0. Some digital Used to check depths. Used to measure heights, depths, diameters, etc. The ideal plane for dimensional measurement should be perfectly flat.
Surface plates are customarily used with accessories like: a toolmaker's flat, angles, parallels, V blocks and cylindrical gage block stacks. Dimensional measurements are taken from the plate up since the plate is the reference surface. Note that angles may also be measured using tools described elsewhere in this Section such as optical comparators, profile projectors and coordinate measuring machines. It is a hand held tool used to obtain an angular reading in degrees and minutes of the workpiece.
The scale is often magnified for easier reading. The sine bar is a machined steel bar that has two cylinders spaced at known dimensions on the bar. An angle is generated indirectly by using precision geometry based on gage block stacks to define the height of one leg of a right triangle. The hypotenuse of the triangle is a known, fixed dimension. From these two measurements, the angle of the plate may be calculated. Normally, the desired part angle is known and a calculation is made for the gage block stack.
To use a sine bar, one must first know the length of the sine bar. Standard sine bar lengths are 5", 10", and 15".
The angle, ", to be checked is determined from the part drawing or other source. The required height of gage blocks is then determined from a sine bar table or calculated using a trigonometric function relationship. In the figure below the sine sin of angle " equals the gage stack height divided by the effective sine bar length. They are typically sold in sets, containing several different angles. Stacking of angle blocks is used to create angles other than those of the individual blocks.
Note that the angles may be added together to form a new angle, or by inverting one of the blocks, the angles may be subtracted. Examples of variable instruments are line rules, vernier calipers, micrometers, depth indicators, runout indicators, etc.
Therefore, most of the chapters include material that goes well beyond the CQE exam requirements. Based on the changes to the CQE BoK, as well as helpful feedback from colleagues and reviewers, this revised edition contains the following major changes:. The editors included many new textbook and journal article references throughout the entire book. Within the discussion of continuous improvement methods, they added descriptions of and references to several case studies.
Nov 21, Messages: The reference material listed by ASQ is somewhat overkill in terms of what you need for passing the exam, its great for growing your knowledge as a Quality Engr. Which of the following tools is NOT used to primee process performance to specifications? Use the entire 5 hours. Jennifer KirleyDec 7, An instructor-led traditional classroom experience.
Do you already have an account? And those are the references from which the exam questions are derived. This is why I say all you really need is the Primer for exam purposes. Yes, my password is: I felt like my brain was aaq for weeks after that. Which of the following affects system availability? The premium practice exam questions are more comprehensive, exam oriented, scenario-based and exact match of ASQ Certified Quality Engineer exam questions.
Does anyone know if the Primers from Quality Council of Indiana is updated with the new version? A solid understanding of basic Algebra and the ability to work with Algebraic formulas is required. Nov 28, Messages:. This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. Out of these cookies, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are as essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website.
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